Publication date: Sep 17, 2025
During the COVID-19 pandemic non-pharmaceutical interventions (NPIs) were taken to mitigate virus spread. Assessing their effectiveness is essential in policy support but often challenging, due to interactions between measures, the increase of immunity, variant emergence and seasonal effects. These factors make results difficult to interpret over a long period of time. Using a mechanistic approach, we estimate the overall effectiveness of sets of NPIs in reducing transmission over time. Our approach quantifies the effectiveness by comparing the observed effective reproduction number, which is the number of secondary infections caused by a typical infected person, to a counterfactual reproduction number if no NPIs were taken. The counterfactual reproduction number accounts for seasonal variations in transmissibility, for emergence of more transmissible variants, and for changes in immunity in the population. The immune fraction is reconstructed from age-specific data of longitudinal serological surveys and vaccination coverage, taking immunity loss due to waning into account. We estimate the effectiveness of NPIs in the Netherlands from the start of the pandemic in March 2020 until the emergence of the Omicron variant in November 2021. We find that the effectiveness of NPIs was high in March and April 2020 during the first pandemic wave and in January and February 2021, coinciding with the two periods with the most stringent measures. For both periods the effectiveness was estimated at approximately 50%, i. e., without any measures the reproduction number would have been twice as high as observed. The proposed approach synthesises available epidemiological data from different sources to reconstruct the population-level immunity. With sufficient data, it can be applied not only to COVID-19 but also to other directly transmitted diseases, such as influenza. This method provides a near real-time assessment of the effectiveness of control measures when the required data are available.
